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INDIA DURING ADVENT OF EUROPEANS
- Anshad S
- Mar 16, 2024
- 9 min read
The period marking the arrival of Europeans in India is a pivotal chapter in Indian history, shaping the socio-political and economic landscape of the subcontinent. This notes aims to provide a comprehensive overview for UPSC Civil Service preparation students, focusing on the key areas of the European advent in India.
Factors Responsible for European Advent in India
The European advent in India was driven by multiple factors:
Advancements in Navigation: European progress in shipbuilding and navigation technologies.
Economic Motives: The desire for lucrative Indian commodities like spices, silk, and precious stones.
Renaissance: The spirit of exploration and discovery that followed the Renaissance period.
Wealth of India: India’s reputation as a land of immense wealth.
Chronology of European Conquest of Asia
The Portuguese (1498): Marked by Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut, initiating a sea trade route.
The English (1600): Establishment of the East India Company, focusing on trade and later colonisation.
The Dutch (1602): The Dutch East India Company became a major force in the spice trade and colonisation in Asia.
The French (1664): The French East India Company was established to compete with other European powers.
Portuguese Era
The Portuguese era was characterised by the establishment of a trade monopoly over the Indian Ocean. They were the first to establish a European colony in India, in Goa.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)- between Portugal and Spain divided non - Christian world by an imaginary line in the Atlantic east for Portugal and west for Spain.
Religious Policy of the Portuguese: Initially, hostile only towards Muslims, later towards Hindus also. In 1579 missionaries were sent to convert the emperor Akbar to Christianity.
Note: Portuguese were first to come in India and last one to leave India.
Vasco-de-Gama |
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Pedro Alvarez Cabral |
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Francis – De – Almeida (1505-1509) |
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Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509- 1515) |
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Nino da Cunha (1529-38) |
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Factors Responsible For Decline Of The Portuguese In India:
The decline of Portuguese power in India was due to several reasons:
Emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia and north India and the appearance of the Marathas as neighbours;
Political fears aroused by the activities of Jesuit missionaries, and hatred of persecution (such as inquisition) that caused reaction against Portuguese spiritual pressure;
Rise of the English and Dutch commercial ambitions challenging the Portuguese supremacy;
Rampant corruption, greed and selfishness along with piracy and clandestine trade practices of the Portuguese administration in India;
Diversion of Portuguese colonising ambitions towards the West due to the discovery of Brazil.
Significance of the Portuguese
Portuguese not only initiated what might be called the European era, it marked the emergence of naval power.
Introduction of cannon on ship
The Portuguese were masters of improved techniques at sea. Their multi-decked ships were heavily constructed.
Missionaries and the Church were also teachers and patrons in India of the arts of the painter, carver, and sculptor.
The Portuguese skill at organisation—as in the creation of royal arsenals and dockyards and the maintenance of a regular system of pilots and mapping and pitting state forces against private merchant shipping—was even more noteworthy.
Introduced European art of warfare
The art of the silversmith and goldsmith flourished at Goa.
Why a Sea Route to India?
1. Economic Gain:
Spices: Europe craved spices like pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. These were used for food preservation, medicine, and even as a display of wealth. At the time, these spices were incredibly valuable, and the trade routes to India were controlled by Arab and Venetian middlemen who marked up the prices heavily. Finding a direct sea route to India would allow the Portuguese to cut out the middleman and access these spices at a much lower cost. This would give them a huge advantage in European trade.
Luxury Goods: India was also a source of other highly desired luxury goods, like textiles (calico cloth), precious stones (diamonds, emeralds), and pearls. A direct trade route would allow Portugal to import these goods more cheaply and efficiently.
2. Bypassing the Ottomans:
The traditional trade routes to India went through the Middle East, which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. In 1453, the Ottomans captured Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), a crucial trade hub. This made it more difficult and expensive for Europeans to trade with Asia. Finding a sea route around Africa would allow the Portuguese to bypass Ottoman control and secure a more reliable trade route.
These economic motivations, coupled with advancements in navigation technology, fueled Portugal's intense pursuit of a direct sea route to India. Vasco da Gama's successful voyage in 1498 marked a turning point in world history, ushering in an era of European exploration and colonisation.
Dutch (Netherlands)
The Dutch focused primarily on the spice trade in Indonesia and had a smaller footprint in India compared to the Portuguese and English.
They were eventually overshadowed by the British in the political sphere.
Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596.
United East India Company of the Netherlands, formed in March 1605 by the Charter of Dutch Parliament, had the powers to wage wars, make treaty and build forts.
Founded their first factory in Masaulipatam in Andhra in 1605.
Subsequently they won over Portuguese & emerged as most dominant European trade power.
Pulicat was their main center in India, later replaced by Nagapattinam.
Dutch carried indigo manufactured in the Yamuna valley and Central India, textiles and silk from Bengal, Gujarat and the Coromandel, saltpetre from Bihar and opium and rice from the Ganga valley.
In 1623, a treaty between British and Dutch; Dutch withdrew their claim from India and British from Indonesia
1650 (17th century), English began to emerge as big colonial power in India.
Anglo Dutch rivalry lasted for 70 years, during which Dutch lost their settlements to British one by one.
The Dutch were not much interested in empire building in India; their concerns were trade. In any case, their main commercial interest lay in the Spice Islands of Indonesia from where they earned a huge profit through business.
Decline in India- The defeat of the Dutch in the Anglo-Dutch rivalry and the shifting of Dutch attention towards the Malay Archipelago. In Battle of Bedara (1759), the English defeated the Dutch.
After prolonged warfare, both the parties compromised by which the British agreed to withdraw all their claims on Indonesia, and the Dutch retired from India.
Dutch established factories in: Masulipatnam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimlipatnam (1641), Karikal (1645), Chinsurah (1653), Cassimbazar (Kasimbazar), Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatnam (1658) and Cochin (1663). (It covered both Eastern and western Coasts).
British Dominance
The British East India Company transitioned from a commercial entity to a political one, eventually leading to British colonial rule over India.
On December 31, 1600 the charter was issued by Queen Elizabeth I of England which gives trade monopoly for 15 years. English east India Company was established in 1600.
Captain Hawkins of England arrived at royal court of Jahangir in 1609 seeking permission to establish England trade center at Surat, but was refused by Jahangir due to Portuguese pressure
With captain Thomas Best’s victory over Portuguese est. first factory in Surat
Later in 1613, Jahangir issued a Farman (permission letter) to English (Sir Thomas Roe) to establish their trade center in Agra Ahmedabad and Baruch, hence British established their 1st trading factory at Surat in 1613.
In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James 1 (King of England) & obtained permission from Jahangir to settle English trading factories in different parts of India
Bombay’s Control; Charles II received as dowry from Portuguese.
Madras; Fort St. George replaced Masulipatnam.
Bombay, Madras & Calcutta became 3 presidency towns of English settlements in India by 1700 with capital Calcutta.
Why the English Succeeded
The English succeeded due to their military superiority, political strategies, and exploitation of internal divisions within India.
Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies: English East India Company, formed through amalgamation of several rival companies at home, was controlled by a board of directors whose members were elected annually.
Naval Superiority: Royal Navy of Britain was not only the largest; it was the most advanced of its times.
Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution reached other European nations late and this helped England to maintain its hegemony. The Industrial Revolution started in England in the early 18th century.
Military Skill and Discipline: The British soldiers were a disciplined lot and well trained. The British commanders were strategists who tried new tactics in warfare.
Stable Government: Britain witnessed stable government with efficient monarchs.
Lesser Zeal for Religion: Britain was less zealous about religion and less interested in spreading Christianity, as compared to Spain, Portugal or the Dutch.
Use of Debt Market: Britain used the debt markets to fund its wars.
French Influence
The French established colonies in various parts of India, including Pondicherry. They were significant players in the trade but were eventually outmanoeuvred by the British.
The French primarily concentrated on coastal enclaves like Pondicherry.
They were militarily defeated by the British and never achieved significant political dominance.
French east India Company was formed in 1664 establishing their 1st factory at Surat; by Francis Caron
Francis Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673 & became 1st governor of Pondicherry. Henceforth Pondicherry became headquarter of French possessions in India.
In beginning of 18th century, English & French were competing for their supremacy in India, Mainly in Carnatic & Bengal region.
After 3 Carnatic wars, finally French were crushed & limited to Pondicherry
First Carnatic war (1740-48); extension of rivalry, ended in 1748 by treaty of Aix-La Chapelle
Second Carnatic War (1749-54); inconclusive, undermined the French and English power in south India
Third Carnatic War (1758-63); decisive war, treaty of Paris (1763)
The Danes (Denmark Settlements):
Denmark had a lesser-known but notable presence in India.
The Danish East India Company was established in 1616 and, in 1620, they founded a factory at Tranquebar near Tanjore, on the eastern coast of India.
Their principal settlement was at Serampore near Calcutta. The Danish factories, which were not important at any time, were sold to the British government in 1845.
The Danes are better known for their missionary activities than for commerce.
Challenges Before the Mughals
The Mughal Empire faced numerous challenges, including internal rebellions, administrative inefficiencies, and external threats from the advancing Europeans.
The arrival of the Europeans posed a new military and political threat to the Mughal Empire.
The decline of regional kingdoms that traditionally acted as buffers against external forces weakened the overall security situation.
End of Mughals began with the reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) with formal ending on November1, 1858 i.e., declaration of Queen Victoria.
Aurangzeb’s misguided policies weakened the stability of the state and the decline gained momentum after his death due to wars of succession and weak rulers.
Muhammad Shah ruled for 29 years (1719-48) but could not revive the imperial fortunes.
New states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh and Punjab established and the Marathas began to make their bid to inherit the imperial mantle.
Internal Challenges: Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb:
1. Bahadur Shah (Shah-i-Bekhabar) [1709- March 1712]
Eldest son of Aurangzeb, Emperor at 63.
Pacifist policy towards Marathas (released Shahu), Jats, Rajputs.
Attack of Sikh leader Shah Bahadur.
2. Jahandar Shah [Feb 1712-Feb 1713]
Introduced Izara
Abolished Jizya
3. Farruk siyar [1713-1719]
Killed Jahandar Shah with the help of Sayyid Brothers, The King Makers (Abdulllah Khan and Hussain Ali).
Religious tolerance: abolished Jizya and Pilgrimage tax.
First emperor to be killed by Nobles.
Issues three Farmans in 1715 to English (Magna Carta of the Company).
4. Rafi-ud-Darajat [Feb 28-June 4, 1717]:
Ruled for the shortest period.
5. Rafi-ud-Daula (Shah Jahan II) [June 6- Sept 17, 1719]:
Opium addict
6. Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) [1719-48]:
Killed Sayyid Brothers with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk.
1724: Independent state of Hyderabad by Nizam-ul-Mulk.
1737: Invasion of Baji Rao I in Delhi.
1739: Battle of Karnal: Nadir Shah defeated Mughals.
7. Ahmad Shah (1748-54):
Incompetent, left throne at the hands of Udham Bai (Queen Mother/ Qibla-i-Alam).
8. Alamgir II (1754-58):
Battle of Plassey (1757).
9. Shah Jahan II (1738-1759)
10. Shah Alam II (1759-1806):
Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
Battle of Buxar (1765): Treaty of Allahabad.
Issues farmans to Company granting them Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
11. Akbar II (1806-37):
Gave the title of Rai to Raja Ram Mohan Rai.
12. Bahadur Shah II/ Zafar:
Last Mughal Emperor
Revolt of 1857.
External Challenges: Lack of Internal Strength and Unity against Invasions from North- West.
1. Nadir Shah (Persian) Invasion [1738-1739]
Battle of Karnal (1739): Defeated Mughals.
Captured Lahore and Emperor Mohammad Shah.
Annexed areas west of Indus.
Looted Peacock throne, Kohinoor.
2. Ahmad Shah Abdali invasion (1748-1764)
Successor of Nadir Shah.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): defeated Marathas.
Causes for the Decline of the Mughals:
Succession struggles and weak emperors: Internal conflicts and incompetent rulers eroded the empire's central authority.
Economic decline: The agrarian crisis and drain of wealth due to European trade practices weakened the Mughal treasury.
Rise of regional powers: The Marathas, Sikhs, and Rajput states challenged Mughal hegemony.
Rise of Regional States
With the decline of the Mughals, regional powers like the Marathas, Mysore kingdom, and Rajput states emerged.
This period witnessed increased political fragmentation and instability.
Regional and independent political system; constantly at war with each other.
Functioned with the support of the local zamindars, merchants, local nobles, and chieftains.
Maintained ties and acknowledged supremacy of the Mughal Emperor.
Lacked advanced and sound military, financial and administrative system. Lacked scientific and technological advancement.
Classified into three categories:
1. Successor States: | Mughal provinces that turned into states, established their own independent and autonomous polity. Example: Awadh (Saadat Khan/Burhan-ul-Mulk); Hyderabad (Kilich Khan/Nizam-ul-Mulk); Bengal (Murshid Kuli Khan). |
2. Independent Kingdoms: | Formed due to destabilization of the Mughal control over their provinces. Example: Rajput, Mysore, Kerala (founded by Martanda Verma). |
3. The New States: | Established by the rebels under the Mughal Rule. Example: Jats (Churaman and Badan Singh founded the Jat state in Bharatpur); Sikhs; Marathas; Rohilakhand (founded by Ali Mohammad Khan; comprised Himalayan foothills between Kumaon and Ganga) and Farukhabad (Mohammad Khan Bangash, in the east of Delhi). |
Socio-Economic Conditions:
The arrival of Europeans had a profound impact on India's social and economic fabric.
The introduction of cash crops like indigo for export led to changes in agrarian practices.
Urbanisation increased due to the growth of port cities and trade centers.
The caste system began to show signs of rigidity.
Agriculture |
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Trade and Industry | Exports >> Imports
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Education |
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Society |
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Art, Architecture and Culture |
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Conclusion:
The advent of Europeans in India marked a turning point in the subcontinent's history. Understanding the dynamics of European competition, the rise and fall of empires, and the socio-economic changes of the period is essential for UPSC aspirants to excel in the Modern History section. Remember to analyse these developments within the broader context of Indian history for a well-rounded understanding.
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